The Nutri-Score Scale-A Tool for Assessing the Nutritional Quality of Processed Meat Products Available on the Polish Market.

Although meat and meat products are important sources of protein in the human diet, consumption appears to be a predisposing factor in the onset of several civilisation diseases, particularly red meat and its products. One way to reduce diet-related diseases is to guide consumers towards consciously purchasing healthier foods by including a nutrition declaration on product labels, such as by using a "front-of-pack" (FOP) labelling system. This study aimed to determine the Nutri-Score classes for processed meat products, distinguish products that are potentially better for consumers, and determine whether the refined algorithm significantly contributed to a change in product classification. An analysis of the labels of 1700 products available on the Polish market indicated that most processed meat products qualified as class D and E. Comparing the refined Nutri-Score calculation algorithm with the original algorithm resulted in a slight change in product allocation. Poultry products were ranked more favourably than red meat products. The most significant change in product allocation (by 35.2%) was achieved by reducing salt content by 30% and fat content by 10%. Among the processed meat products, some are more highly ranked and are hence considered better from a nutritional perspective than others in that group.

Over 300 km Dispersion of Wild Boar during Hot Summer, from Central Poland to Ukraine.

The movement of wild boars is a complex process influenced by both internal conditions and external factors. Despite their typically sedentary lifestyle, dispersion constitutes an integral element of the wild boar's behavior. This report documents the longest observed wild boar dispersal, involving a collared two-year-old male near Warsaw, Poland. The aim of this study was to present the characteristics of movement during the "nomadic phase", drawing comparisons with the "sedentary phase". The other aim was to evaluate the influence of meteorological factors on the minimum daily travel distance of the wild boar. We collected data from two-year-old males. The first exhibited long-distance dispersal and the second only demonstrated local movements. We calculated the minimum daily distance of both wild boars based on collar locations and calculated basic statistics of movement. We used a generalized linear model with a gamma distribution and log link function to assess the potential impact of weather conditions on the minimum daily distance of wild boars. We tested maximum daily temperature, average daily temperature, and the sum of daily precipitation. The wild boar during a "nomadic phase" covered a total of 922 km with a mean minimum daily movement of 6 km. The dispersion distance was 307 km. The highest value of the minimum daily distance reached 31.8 km/day. The second wild boar (near Warsaw) covered a mean minimum daily distance of 1.4 km; the highest value of the minimum daily distance was 3.9 km. Both wild boars exhibited no dependence of minimum daily distance on weather conditions. However, when intensive and non-intensive dispersion were analyzed separately, it was demonstrated that the maximum daily temperature positively influenced the minimum daily distance. We speculate that the wild boar was forced to search for water sources after dark on hot days, which induced a longer traveling distance in an unfamiliar environment. This study highlights the significant spatial capabilities of wild boar in the transmission of genes or pathogens. We speculate that extended daily distances during the initial "nomadic phase" might suggest a panicked escape from a perceived threat. It is plausible that the wild boar found improved shelter within tall cereal crops in July and August, which resulted in lower daily distances.

A validated LC-MS/MS method for simultaneous determination of key glucocorticoids in animal hair for applications in conservation biology.

A new method for the determination of main glucocorticoids (cortisol, cortisone, and corticosterone) in hair by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was developed. Glucocorticoids were extracted from hair shafts using methanol followed by solid-phase extraction. A validation test was performed using hair from three species of wild mammals with different body size (0.2-800 kg), lifestyle (terrestrial, burrowing and arboreal species), social organization (living in herds or solitary), and different predicted type of hair glucocorticoids: European bison (Bison bonasus), European hamster (Cricetus cricetus), and Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris). Regardless of the species evaluated, the method shows good linearity for all analytes accompanied by satisfactory accuracy (91-114%) and precision (RSD < 13%). Depending on the analyte and hair origin, the calculated limits of quantification were between 0.05 and 1.19 ng/mL, which corresponds to 1.28-31.51 pg/mg. Using cortisol and cortisone as examples, we have demonstrated that measuring multiple glucocorticoids simultaneously provides more comprehensive information than solely concentrating on one, thereby contributing to a more balanced and reliable interpretation of the acquired results. However, the utility of cortisol metabolites as markers of stress response in keratinized tissues should be substantiated by additional experimental studies on targeted animals. We posit that this paper could serve as a crucial catalyst to prompt such experiments.

An assessment of the habitat preferences of European bison with airborne laser scanning data in forest ecosystem.

Research on habitat preferences is an important part of contemporary ecology. For the European bison, the classic approach to distinguishing habitat features is still being followed, but the limitations of this approach cannot provide the standard features of optimal habitats for this species. The study consisted in comparing analyses of the habitat preferences of European bison that were based on either classic forest typology (habitat types) or airborne laser scanning data. The data for these analyses were collected from telemetry collars on European bison in Bialowieza Forest. The model based on airborne laser scanning features presented better parameters (percent of correctly classified cases and ROC) than the model based on habitat types. The results show that it is possible to find universal indicators of European bison's preferences that are independent of local forest classification methodology. The indicators used suggest that European bison have a preference for forest habitats with low canopy cover and a small share of woody plants in the lower parts of the forest. Low canopy cover itself is not necessarily beneficial for European bison. Our study also indicates that airborne laser scanning is also useful in the assessment of habitat suitability for European bison in forest ecosystems.

Distribution of large lungworms (Nematoda: Dictyocaulidae) in free-roaming populations of red deer Cervus elaphus (L.) with the description of Dictyocaulus skrjabini n. sp.

Lungworms of the genus Dictyocaulus are causative agents of parasitic bronchitis in domestic and wild ungulates. This study investigates the distribution, morphology and genetic diversity of D. cervi and a new lungworm species, Dictyocaulus skrjabini n. sp. infecting red deer Cervus elaphus, fallow deer Dama dama and moose Alces alces in Poland and Sweden. The study was conducted on 167 red deer from Poland and on the DNA of lungworms derived from 7 fallow deer, 4 red deer and 2 moose collected in Sweden. The prevalence of D. cervi and D. skrjabini n. sp. in dissected red deer in Poland was 31.1% and 7.2%, respectively. Moreover, D. skrjabini n. sp. was confirmed molecularly in 7 isolates of fallow deer lungworms and 1 isolate of red deer lungworms from Sweden. Dictyocaulus skrjabini n. sp. was established based on combination of their distinct molecular and morphological features; these included the length of cephalic vesicle, buccal capsule (BC), buccal capsule wall (BCW), distance from anterior extremity to the nerve ring, the width of head, oesophagus, cephalic vesicle, BC and BCW, as well as the dimensions of reproductive organs of male and female. Additionally, molecular analyses revealed 0.9% nucleotide sequence divergence for 1,605 bp SSU rDNA, and 16.5­17.3% nucleotide sequence divergence for 642 bp mitochondrial cytB between D. skrjabini n. sp. and D. cervi, respectively, and 18.7­19% between D. skrjabini n. sp. and D. eckerti, which translates into 18.2­18.7% amino acid sequence divergence between D. skrjabini n. sp. and both lungworms.

Assessment of dietary exposure to food additives used in Polish processed meat products.

Dietary exposure assessments have been performed for nitrites, phosphates, erythorbic acid, and sodium erythorbate in processed meat in Poland. The exposure has been estimated based on the maximum level of use of additives contained in Regulation - tier 2 and the concentration of additives in processed meat - tier 3, additionally for nitrites. Daily intake was estimated using 24-h recall, repeated three times. Exposure analyses were correlated with the frequency of occurrence of food additives based on label analysis (tiers 2a and 3a). The mean nitrite intake from processed meat at tier 2 was 0.1 mg/kg bw (143% ADI), 0.08 mg/kg bw (118% - ADI) at tier 2a, 0.03 mg/kg bw (43% - ADI) at tier 3, and 0.026 mg/kg bw (37% - ADI) at tier 3a. The mean intakes of phosphate and erythorbic acid/sodium erythorbate from processed meat were 3.26 and 0.54 mg/kg bw (8.2% and 9% - ADI), respectively at tier 2. None of the respondents exceeded the ADIs for phosphates or erythorbic acid/sodium erythorbate. In contrast, nitrite consumption is of great concern because of significant ADI exceedances, particularly among young children.

Dyes Used in Processed Meat Products in the Polish Market, and Their Possible Risks and Benefits for Consumer Health.

Manufacturers are obliged to label processed meat products with information concerning the additives used and nutritional values. The aim of the study was to identify the dyes most frequently used in processed meat, evaluate their influence on specific food qualities, assess whether their use was correct and review their effect on health. The analysis was based on information on the labels and images of processed meat, and used a generalised linear model with a binary dependent variable. The risks and benefits for human health were defined based on the available literature. Twelve dyes were found to be used in the manufacture of processed meat. Carmine was found in 183 of 273 (67.03%) evaluated assortments containing dyes. The occurrence of water, flavourings and high fat and carbohydrate contents increased the chances that a dye would be present in a particular product. Unauthorised use of food additives was found in 20 products, with smoked meat products demonstrating the highest number of non-compliances. In general, the dyes used with food are considered safe; however, reservations are associated with the use of E150C and E150D caramels due to their potential carcinogenic effect, and carmine and annatto due to their allergic effects.

Endoparasite loads and the efficacy of conventional anthelmintics against gastrointestinal nematodes in captive European bison.

Although little information exists on the efficacy of deworming in wild ruminants, gastrointestinal nematodes have been found to demonstrate increasing drug resistance. The spread of drug-resistant strains may be increased by transmission among livestock and susceptible wildlife species, thus posing a potential threat to endangered species, such as the European bison. The aim of the study was twofold: to identify the parasite loads in captive European bison with the use of coprological techniques, and to test the influence of other nearby ungulates on the richness of bison parasitofauna. Additionally, the efficacy of deworming procedures against gastrointestinal nematodes in bison was evaluated. The survey was based on a coprological investigation of 285 fecal samples from 156 European bison in 15 enclosures. The parasitofauna of the captive European bison was consistent with those of free-ranging populations. The highest prevalence was noted for Eimeria spp. oocysts (60.7%), strongyle eggs (50.9%), Fasciola hepatica eggs (13.1%), Dictyocaulus viviparus larvae (12.3%) and Trichuris sp. Eggs (9.47%). Moreover, the close proximity of other ungulate species resulted in a higher diversity of parasite species. In all cases, deworming with albendazole, fenbendazole and ivermectin proved to be ineffective against strongylids and Trichuris sp. The results of fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) ranged from 37.2 to 99.6% (95% CI <90%) for albendazole; values >95% (95% CI = 41-100) were noted for fenbendazole, and FECRT ranged from 63.2 to 97.5 (95% CI = 0-99) for ivermectin. As the results of anthelmintic treatment are unsatisfactory, it seems justified to continue study in this area. Our study is the first large-scale attempt to evaluate the efficacy of anthelminthics in captive European bison. The potential sharing of parasite species between bison and other ungulates should also be further investigated from the perspective of minimizing the risk of the spread of drug-resistant parasite strains.

A serological survey of pathogens associated with the respiratory and digestive system in the Polish European bison (Bison bonasus) population in 2017-2022.

BACKGROUND: The European bison (Bison bonasus) is a near threatened species and requires health monitoring. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of antibodies to pathogens known to cause respiratory and digestive illness in ruminants. RESULTS: In the studied 328 European bison, the highest seroprevalence was observed for Bovine herpesvirus-1 (BoHV-1) (50.27%), Bovine Coronavirus (BCoV) (26.36%), and Bluetongue Virus (BTV) (12.83%). For Mycoplasma bovis strains and Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV), positive results were rare. Interestingly, a higher prevalence of BTV antibodies was noted in the northeastern populations and older animals. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that the Polish European bison population appears to have considerable contact with BoHV-1; however, this does not appear to be of great significance, as clinical symptoms and post-mortem lesions are rarely noted in Polish European bison population. The high seroprevalence of BTV in the north-east of Poland is an ongoing trend, also noted in previous studies. It is possible that European bison may perpetuate the virus in this region. This is the first report of antibodies for BCoV in European bison.

Contact between European bison and cattle from the cattle breeders' perspective, in the light of the risk of pathogen transmission.

Pathogens transmitted between wildlife and domestic animals can pose a threat to endangered species, undermine conservation efforts in wildlife, and affect productivity and parasite control in domestic animals. There are several examples of pathogen transmission between European bison and other animals. The present study surveyed breeders from the vicinity of four large wisent populations in eastern Poland about observed contacts between wisent and cattle. Such contacts were noted by 37% of breeders, indicating a significant risk of contact between European bison and cattle in the study areas, even in the areas where the European bison live mainly in a forest complex, i.e., in the Borecka Forest. A higher potential risk of contacts between European bison and cattle was noted in the Bialowieska Forest and the Bieszczady Mountains than in the Borecka and Knyszynska Forests. In the Bialowieska Forest, the risk of viral pathogen transmission resulting from contacts is higher (more direct contacts), and in the case of the Bieszczady Mountains, the probability of parasitic diseases is higher. The chance of contacts between European bison and cattle depended on the distance of cattle pastures from human settlements. Moreover, such contact was possible throughout the year, not only in spring and fall. It appears possible to minimize the risk of contacts between wisent and cattle by changing management practices for both species, such as keeping grazing areas as close as possible to settlements, and reducing the time cattle graze on pastures. However, the risk of contact is much greater if European bison populations are large and are dispersed beyond forest complexes.

Exchanged Communities of Abomasal Nematodes in Cervids with a First Report on Mazamastrongylus Dagestanica in Red Deer.

Introduction: Among large wild game in Poland, the most numerous cervids are red deer and roe deer. Although these species live free, they should be under veterinary supervision because they can transmit infectious agents and parasites to livestock. The aim of this study was to evaluate the biodiversity of the abomasal nematodes which parasitise cervids and present the visual and dimensional characteristics of their spicules. Material and Methods: Overall, 2,067 spicules of nematodes derived from nine red deer and five roe deer were measured and microphotographed in order to determine the species. The predominant Spiculopteragia boehmi was additionally confirmed molecularly by PCR. The spicule lengths of the most common species found in both hosts simultaneously were compared. Results: Fourteen species of abomasal nematode were identified. All examined animals but one were infected. The most prevalent parasites in both host species were S. boehmi and Ostertagia leptospicularis. The alien Ashworthius sidemi was found in both hosts, whereas Haemonchus contortus was identified only in red deer. Mazamastrongylus dagestanica was noted in red deer for the first time. A 262-base-pair nucleotide sequence of S. boehmi was obtained and deposited in GenBank. Significantly longer spicules were found in red deer-derived O. leptospicularis and S. boehmi and shorter structures were seen in A. sidemi. Conclusion: The widespread exchange of abomasal nematodes between various ruminant species questions the relevance of their division into specialists and generalists.

Comorbidities and concentration of trace elements in livers of European bison from Bieszczady Mountains (Poland).

European bison is a species for which health monitoring is essential in conservation activities. So far, little research has been carried out on the concentration of elements in this species. Most previous studies did not associate the concentration of elements with susceptibility to diseases. In this study we investigate the relationship between comorbidities in European bison and concentrations of a wide spectrum of elements in the liver. Samples were collected during the monitoring of the European bison population in Bieszczady (southeast Poland) over the 2020-2022 period. Each individual was also visually inspected by a veterinarian in the field for the presence of lesions as a part of a post-mortem examination. The animals were divided into 3 groups: group A-one type of clinical sign; group B-two types of clinical signs; group C-three or more types of clinical signs. The ICP-OES method was applied to assess the concentration of 40 elements in livers. Discriminant analysis showed clear differences between the mineral status of individuals in the groups with one, two, and at least three types of clinical signs. Detailed analysis of selected elements showed that, in the case of eight elements, there was a relationship with age, sex, or comorbidities. Cu, Se, and Zn showed significant differences in relation to comorbidities, but only Cu concentration was lower when the frequency of lesions was higher. We concluded that in research on the mineral status of the population, apart from the availability of trace elements in the environment, the health condition of the studied individuals should also be considered. However, inferring the mineral status of the population on the basis of randomly obtained samples from dead individuals may give an incomplete view of the population, especially in the case of species susceptible to diseases, such as European bison.

Body Condition and Breeding of Urban Red Squirrels: Comparison of Two Populations Affected by Different Levels of Urbanization.

The red squirrel is among the mammals that have adjusted well to urban habitats. Here, we focused on the two populations inhabiting Warsaw: in a park (with year-round supplemental feeding) and in an urban forest. We hypothesised that park squirrels would have higher body mass (and better body condition), being more stable over the year, and would have a higher breeding rate (i.e., the share of breeding females). Contrary to our hypothesis, forest squirrels were heavier and had better body condition than park squirrels. The body masses of squirrels from both areas were quite stable (with the highest values obtained in spring). Females in better body conditions were more likely to breed. More breeding females and sub-adults were trapped in the park. Regardless of the study site, the highest share of breeding females was in spring, but they also bred in winter and in the remaining seasons. The lower body mass/condition of park squirrels may be possibly explained by high intraspecific competition, or by stable food (and thermal as typical for the city) conditions, in which accumulating fat was not crucial. Mild winter conditions may have also enabled squirrels to breed early. This study showed the high plasticity of red squirrels living in human-transformed habitats.

Two Centrifugal Flotation Techniques for Counting Gastrointestinal Parasite Eggs and Oocysts in Alpaca Faeces.

Introduction: The alpaca (Vicugna pacos) is a camelid native to South America, but the species has wide distribution outside its natural habitat and is found in various countries on other continents, Poland being one in Europe. Parasitic infections affect the productivity and health of alpacas. The aim of the study was to estimate the parasite loads in alpacas kept in Poland with the use of two direct centrifugal flotation methods. Material and Methods: A total of 248 faecal samples from alpacas from 12 provinces in Poland were examined for parasite eggs and oocysts with a modified Willis method (WM), and 59 samples were examined simultaneously with WM and a modified Stoll method (SM). Results: The WM detected eggs of Trichostrongylidae, and the SM oocysts of Eimeria spp. as the respective most prevalent parasite material. The eggs of Nematodirus sp., Nematodirus battus, Aonchotheca sp., and Trichuris sp. were detected in lower numbers in both methods. Oocysts of E. macusaniensis and eggs of Moniezia sp. were the rarest in WM, the former also being so in SM; eggs of Moniezia were absent in SM. The prevalence of Eimeria spp. was significantly higher as detected by SM than as detected by WM; however, the prevalence of eggs of Nematodirus spp. and trichostrongyles was significantly higher as detected by WM than as detected by SM. Conclusion: WM is more accurate at detecting heavy gastro-intestinal nematode eggs, including those of trichostrongyles and Nematodirus, whereas SM is more accurate at detecting smaller coccidia from the genus Eimeria.

Could the type and severity of gross lesions in pig lymph nodes play a role in the detection of Mycobacterium avium?

The Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) comprises a widespread group of slowly-growing bacteria from the Mycobacteriaceae. These bacteria are responsible for opportunistic infections in humans and animals, including farm animals. The aim of the study was to determine whether it is possible to predict the presence of M. avium in pig lymph nodes based on the size and type of lesions found during post-mortem examination at a slaughterhouse. Lymph nodes were collected from 10,600 pigs subjected to such post-mortem examination. The nodes were classified with regard to their quality, and the number of tuberculosis-like lesions; following this, 86 mandibular lymph nodes with lesions and 113 without visible macroscopic lesions were selected for further study. Cultures were established on Löwenstein-Jensen and Stonebrink media, and a commercial GenoType Mycobacterium CM test was used to identify and differentiate M. avium species. The prevalence of M. avium was 56.98% in the lymph nodes with lesions and 19.47% in the unchanged ones. Statistical analysis indicated that visual assessment of lesions in the mandibular lymph nodes, in particular the number of tuberculous lesions, is a highly-efficient diagnostic tool. Similar results were obtained for estimated percentage area affected by the lesion, i.e. the ratio of the changed area of the lymph node in cross-section to the total cross-sectional area of the lymph node; however, this method is more laborious and its usefulness in slaughterhouse conditions is limited. By incising the lymph nodes and assessing the number of tuberculosis-like lesions, it is possible to limit the inclusion of meat from pigs infected with M. avium into the human food chain.

How should we manage a strong Eurasian Beaver population? A comparison of population trends in Poland and Belarus.

The Eurasian beaver is currently found in at least 32 European countries, with many of these populations being established in the 1960s. In most European countries, the beaver is under protection, however, when the population is strong, the beaver becomes a game species. In Poland, the beaver is partially protected despite the species having a strong population. In this study we aimed to compare the development trends of Eurasian beaver populations in two management regimes, in Poland (protected) and Belarus (hunted), between 2004 and 2019. We compared beaver population trends in both countries, and analyzed the factors that could impact population growth. In Poland, during this period the population increased 3.5 times, while in Belarus it was only 20%. Distinct differences in the rate of population numbers increase were also observed between regions in Poland, but a stable, slight increase similar in all regions in Belarus. Our study did not show that precipitation or the density of this species influenced the rate of population development in Poland. During this period, hunting and wolf density significantly and negatively impacted beaver population growth in Belarus, but in the long-term analysis, hunting had a lower impact on beaver population growth. We concluded that we can expect a further increase in this population in Poland. Long-term hunting at a level of 13,7% (based on the analysis of population dynamics and hunting bags for Belarus) of the annual population seems to be a safe value for the beaver population. Nevertheless more detailed analysis should be carried out in the face of the large differences between regions.

MIRU-VNTR Typing of Atypical Mycobacteria Isolated from the Lymph Nodes of Slaughtered Pigs from Poland.

No regulations currently require the excision of lymph nodes from pig carcasses or the thermal processing of pork before consumption. Therefore, the presence of anatomopathological lesions with signs of coagulation necrosis in lymph nodes from pigs during post-mortem inspection is concerning, as is the increasing incidence of mycobacteriosis in humans. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to verify whether mycobacteria can be isolated from tuberculous-like lesions in mandibular lymph nodes in slaughtered pigs, and whether further molecular analysis based on MIRU-VNRT, used to identify mycobacteria from the Mycobacterium avium complex, can indicate zoonotic potential. Forty of the fifty isolates from the lymph nodes with signs of coagulation necrosis were classified as Mycobacterium avium complex. MIRU-VNTR analysis allowed for the isolation of six strains, one of which was classified as M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP). Our findings confirm the presence of atypical mycobacteria in the lymph nodes of slaughtered pigs. While the isolated strains (other than MAP) do not pose a significant or direct health risk to consumers, further research and monitoring are necessary. Atypical mycobacteria can cause a wide range of diseases in children and compromised adults, and often show resistance to many classes of antibiotics, including those used to treat tuberculosis.

Detection of spatial avoidance between sousliks and moles by combining field observations, remote sensing and deep learning techniques.

Nowadays, remote sensing is being increasingly applied in ecology and conservation, and even underground animals can successfully be studied if they leave clear signs of their presence in the environment. In this work, by combining a field study, analysis of high-resolution aerial images, and machine learning techniques, we investigated the interspecies relationships of two small burrowing mammals: the spotted souslik Spermophilus suslicus and the European mole Talpa europaea. The study was conducted for 3 years (2018-2020) at a 105-ha grass airfield where both species coexist (Poland). Both field studies and the analysis of aerial imagery showed that, in the period of low population numbers, the souslik avoided coexistence with the European mole, and the presence of the mole was found to reduce the area of the habitat suitable for the souslik. The presence of other burrowing species may be an important element in the habitat selectivity of the souslik, but this has not yet been included in the conservation guidelines for this species. We discuss the contribution of our results to the knowledge of the ecology of burrowing mammals and their interspecies relationships. We also assess the possibility of using remote sensing and deep learning methods in ecology and conservation of small burrowing mammals.

Genetic Structure of the Root Vole Microtus oeconomus: Resistance of the Habitat Specialist to the Natural Fragmentation of Preferred Moist Habitats.

Climate-related changes have a severe impact on wetland ecosystems and pose a serious challenge for wetland-dependent animals as their preferred habitats decline, lose spatial continuity, and appear as isolated islands in the landscape. In this paper, we studied the effects of long-term habitat changes (drying out and fragmentation of wet non-forest habitats) on the genetic structure of the population of the root vole Microtus oeconomus, a species preferring moist habitats. We intended to check what barriers and what distances affected its genetic isolation on a local scale. The study was conducted in the area of Kampinoski National Park in central Poland (Europe). DNA variability of 218 root vole individuals was assessed by genotyping nine microsatellite loci. Despite its spatial fragmentation, the studied population did not seem to be highly structured, and isolation through distance was the main differentiating factor. Even a distance of several kilometres of unfavourable natural habitats and unfavourable terrain did not exclude the exchange of genes between subpopulations. Our results suggest that the genetic effects of the fragmentation of wetlands have been considerably compensated (delayed) due to the migratory abilities of this species. Our study does not provide clear results on the impact of anthropogenic barriers but suggests that such barriers may have a much stronger effect than natural barriers.

Predicting the risk of Alaria alata infestation in wild boar on the basis of environmental factors.

Alaria alata is an emerging parasite that poses a potential risk for those consuming game, pork, snails and frogs. One paratenic host of A. alata that is known to play an important role in its spread through its feeding habitats is the wild boar. However, no statistical analysis of the influence of aquatic environments and carnivores on the occurrence of A. alata in wild boars has yet been performed. The present study combines a small-scale analysis based on hunting districts in the Mazowieckie province with a large-scale analysis based on data for all provinces in Poland. We applied various modeling approaches, including logistic regression and a generalized linear model in order to determine the presence, intensity and prevalence of A. alata. We used the Alaria mesocercariae migration technique (AMT) to estimate the risk of A. alata among wild boar in a given hunting district or province. The small-scale analysis found that mesopredators (red fox (Vulpes vulpes)) and racoon dog (Nyctereutes procyinoides) were likely to influence A. alata infestation of wild boar; however, the effect was weak, probably as a result of the large home range size of these animals. The large-scale analysis found that wetlands influence the prevalence of A. alata in wild boar, with the estimated risk increasing in the north of the country; this finding is consistent with other studies. Our findings indicate that the occurrence of A. alata in wild boar requires analysis on many levels, and environmental factors play a key role in risk assessment.